How to Cite
Abstract
In the Biblical account of the golden calf (Exodus 32), abnormal importance is devoted to the metal of the statuette, its origin, and even its destruction. The present analysis identifies this latter process as an act of cementation, a technique used in antiquity to separate gold from its alloyed metals, mainly copper. In parallel, the tabernacle symbolism reveals that pure gold is a marker of YHWH’s theophany whereas gold-copper alloy is associated with the man-god relationship. Consequently, instead of condemning idolatry, the cementation treatment of the golden calf symbolizes the abortion of the project of divine residence in the tabernacle, the re-establishment of YHWH’s distance from humankind, and the restoration of an intermediate divine figure between YHWH and the Israelites. It is concluded that, in Exodus 32, the transgression inherent in the making of the golden calf results from the combination of two antagonistic goals: the indirect worship of YHWH via the golden calf and closeness to the supreme deity via the tabernacle project.
References
Aberbach, Moses and Leivy Smolar. “Aaron, Jeroboam and the Golden Calves.†Journal of Biblical Literature 86 (1967): 129-140. https://doi.org/10.2307/32 63268.
Albright, William F. Archaeology and the Religion of Israel. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1946.
Amzallag, Nissim. “YHWH: the Canaanite God of Metallurgy?†Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 33 (2009): 387–404.
Amzallag, Nissim. “Copper Metallurgy: A Hidden Fundament of the Theology of Ancient Israel?†Scandinavian Journal forthe Old Testament 27 (2013): 155–180.
Amzallag, Nissim. “Furnace Re-melting as Expression of YHWH's Holiness: Evidence from the Meaning of qanna (×§× ×) in Divine Context.†Journal of Biblical Literature 134 (2015): 233-252. https://doi.org/10.1353/jbl.2015.0024.
Amzallag, Nissim. “The Forgotten Meaning of Ê¿ÄpÄr in Biblical Hebrew.†JAOS 137 (2017): 767-783. https://doi.org/10.7817/jameroriesoci.137.4.0767.
Amzallag, Nissim. “Why is the Cain Genealogy (Gen 4:17-24) Integrated into the Book of Genesis?†Ancient Near Eastern Studies 55 (2018): 23-50.
Amzallag, Nissim. “Beyond Prestige and Magnificence – The Theological Significance of Gold in the Israelite Tabernacle.†Harvard Theological Review 112 (2019): 296-318. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0017816019000130.
Amzallag, Nissim and Shamir Yona. “Differentiation of the qayin Family of Roots in Biblical Hebrew.†Semitica 59 (2017): 297-332.
Amzallag, Nissim and Shamir Yona. “The Kenite Origin of the Sotah Prescription (Numbers 5.11-31).†Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 41 (2017): 383-412. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309089216661176.
Aufrère, Sidney H. L'univers minéral dans la pensée égyptienne (Le Caire: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale), 1991.
Aufrère, Sidney H. “L'univers minéral dans la pensée égyptienne: essai de synthèse et perspectives.†Archéo-Nil 7 (1997): 113-44.
Baden, Joel S. “On Exodus 33,1-11.†ZAW 124 (2012): 329-40.
Bailey, Lloyd R. “The Golden Calf.†Hebrew Union College Annual 42 (1971): 97-115.
Blenkinsopp, Joseph. “The Midianite-Kenite Hypothesis Revisited and the Origin of Judah.†Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 33 (2008): 131–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309089208099253.
Brichto, Herbert C. “The Worship of the Golden Calf: A Literary Analysis of a Fable on Idolatry.†Hebrew Union College Annual 54 (1983): 1-44.
Carpenter, David. “Gold and Silver.†Pages 67-69 in The Encyclopedia of religion, vol. 6. Edited by Mircea Eliade, New York: MacMillan, 1987.
Cassuto, Umberto. A Commentary on the Book of Exodus. Jerusalem: Magnus Press, 1967.
Childs, Brevard S. Exodus - A commentary. London: SCM Press, 1974.
Chung, Youn H. The Sin of the Calf. The Rise of the Bible's Negative Attitude Towards the Golden Calf . London: Bloomsbury, 2010.
Clements, Ronald E. Exodus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972.
Craddock, Paul. “Historical Survey of Gold Refining. 1. Surface Treatment and Refining Worldwide, and in Europe prior to 1500 AD.†Pages 27-53 in King Croesus' Gold – Excavations at Sardis and the History of Gold Refining. Edited by Andrew Ramage and Paul Craddock; London: British Museum Press, 2000.
Craddock, Paul. “Replication Experiments and the Chemistry of Gold Refining Cementation.†Pages 175-183 in King Croesus’ Gold – Excavations at Sardis and the History of Gold Refining. Edited by Andrew Ramage and Paul Craddock; London: British Museum Press, 2000.
Danelius, Eva. “The Sins of Jeroboam ben-Nabat.†Jewish Quarterly Review 58 (1967): 95-114. https://doi.org/10.2307/1453340.
Davis, Dale R. “Rebellion, Presence and Covenant: A Study in Exodus 32-34.†Westminster Theological Journal 44 (1982): 71-87.
Dozeman, Thomas D. Commentary on Exodus. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009.
Driver, Godfrey R. “Ezekiel’s Inaugural Vision.†Vetus Testamentum 1 (1951): 60–62.
Fensham, F. Charles. “The Burning of the Golden Calf and Ugarit.†Israel Exploration Journal 16 (1966): 191-193.
Fleming, Daniel E. “If El is a Bull, Who is a Calf? Reflections on Religion in Second-Millennium Syria-Palestine.†Eretz-Israel – Frank Moore Cross Volume, (1999): 23*-27*.
Frankel, David. “The Destruction of the Golden Calf: A New Solution.†Vetus Testamentum 44 (1994): 330-339.
Fretheim, Terence E. Exodus. Louisville: John Knox, 1991.
Koehler, Ludwig and Walter Baumgartner. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (HALOT). Leiden: Brill, 1996.
Hamilton, Victor P. Exodus – An Exegetical Commentary. Grand Rapids: Baker Academics, 2011.
Haran, Menahem. “The Nature of the ʾÅhel mÈÊ¿Ä“d in Pentateuchal Sources.†Journal of Semitic Studies 5 (1960): 50-65.
Hendrix, Ralph E. “A Literary Structural Overview of Exod 25-40.†Andrews University Seminary Studies 30 (1992): 123-138.
Hendrix, Ralph E. “The Use of miÅ¡kÄn and ʾohel môʿed in Exodus 25-40.†Andrews University Seminary Studies 30 (1992): 3-13.
Houtman, Cornelis. Exodus, vol. 3. Leuven: Peeters, 2000.
Hundley, Michael B. “What is the Golden Calf?†CBQ 79 (2017): 559-579.
Hunt, Leslie B. “The Oldest Metallurgical Handbook. Recipes of a Fourth Century Goldsmithâ€, Gold Bulletin 9 (1976): 24-31. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03215403.
Huth, Christoph. “Gifts from the Gods. A New Look at some Weapons and Vessels from the Metal Ages.†Pages 49-64 in Diversity of Sacrifices – Form and Function of Sacrificial Practices in the Ancient World and Beyond. Edited by Carrie A. Murray, Albany: State University of New York Press, 2016.
Hyatt, J. Philip. Commentary on Exodus. London: Oliphants, 1971.
Jacob, Benno. Exodus. Hoboken [NJ]: Ktav Publishing, 1992.
James, Thomas G.H. “Gold Technology in Ancient Egypt – Mastery of Metal Working Methodsâ€, Gold Bulletin 5 (1972): 38-42. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03215160.
Kaufmann, Yehezkel. The religion of Israel. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960.
Kedar-Kopfstein, Benjamin. “Zahav.†Pages 32-40 in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, vol 4. Edited by G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980.
Key, Andrew F. “Traces of the Worship of the Moon God Sin among the Early Israelites.†JBL 84 (1965): 20-26. https://doi.org/10.2307/3264069.
Lehming, Sigo. “Versuch zu Ex. XXXII.†Vetus Testamentum 10 (1960): 16-50. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853360x00021.
Levey, Martin. “The Refining of Gold in Ancient Mesopotamia.†Chymia 5 (1959): 31-36. https://doi.org/10.2307/27757174.
Lewis, Joe O. “The Ark and the Tent.†Review and Expositor 74 (1977): 537-48.
Lewy, Julius. “The Late Assyro-Babylonian Cult of the Moon and Its Culmination at the Time of Nabonidus.†HUCA 19 (1945): 405-489.
Loewenstamm, Samuel E. “The Making and Destruction of the Golden Calf.†Biblica 48 (1967): 481-490.
Loewenstamm, Samuel E. “The Making and Destruction of the Golden Calf – A Rejoinder.†Biblica 56 (1975): 330-348.
Moberly, R. Walter L. At the Mountain of God – Story and Theology in Exodus 32-34. JSOT Supp 22; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1983.
Mondriaan, Marleen E. The Rise of Yahwism – The Role of Marginalized Groups. PhD Dissertation, University of Pretoria, 2010.
Noth, Martin. Exodus - A Commentary. London: SCM, 1965.
Notton, John F.H. “Ancient Egyptian Gold Refining. A Reproduction of Early Techniques.†Gold Bulletin 7 (1974): 50-56. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03215038.
Nriagu, Jerome O. “Cupellation: The oldest Quantitative Chemical Process.†Journal of Chemical Education 62 (1985): 668-674. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed062p668.
Ogden, Jack. “Metals.†Pages 148-175 in Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Edited by Paul T. Nicholson and Ian Shaw; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Oswalt, John N. “The Golden Calves and the Egyptian Concept of Deity.†Evangelical Quarterly 45 (1973): 13-20.
Patai, Raphael. “Biblical Figures as Alchemists.†Hebrew Union College Annual 54 (1983): 195-229.
Perdue, Leo G. “The Making and Destruction of the Golden Calf – A Reply.†Biblica 54 (1973): 237-246.
Pingel, Volker. “Technical Aspects of Prehistoric Gold Objects on the Basis of Metal Analysis.†Pages 385-398 in Prehistoric Gold in Europe – Mines, Metallurgy and Manufacture. Edited by Giulio Morteani and Jeremy P. Northover, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1995. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-1292-3_25.
Pfeiffer, Robert. “Images of Yahweh.†Journal of Biblical Literature 45 (1926): 221-222.
Propp, William H.C. Exodus 19-40 – A New translation with Introduction and Commentary. New York: Doubleday, 2006.
Raub, Christoph J. “The Metallurgy of Gold and Silver in Prehistoric Times.†Pages 243-259 in Prehistoric Gold in Europe – Mines, Metallurgy and Manufacture. Edited by Giulio Morteani and Jeremy P. Northover, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1995. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-1292-3_16.
Rehren, Thilo; Hess, Karsten and Philip, Graham. “Auriferous Silver in Western Asia: Ore or Alloy?†JHMS 30 (2001): 1-10.
Rendsburg, Garry A. “Hebrew Philological Notes (II).†Hebrew Studies 42 (2001): 187-195. https://doi.org/10.1353/hbr.2001.0022.
Ringgren, Helmer. Israelite religion. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1966.
Robinson, Theodore H. “The Text of Jeremiah vi 27-30, in the Light of Ezekiel xxii 17-20.†Journal of Theological Studies 16 (1915): 482-490. https://doi.org/10.1 093/jts/os-xvi.7.482.
Saggs, Henry W.F. The Encounter with the Divine in Mesopotamia and Israel. London: Athlone, 1978.
Sarna, Nahum M. Exploring Exodus – The Heritage of Biblical Israel. New York: Shoken, 1986.
Sarna, Nahum M. Exodus. JPS Torah Commentary; Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1991.
Slivniak, Dmitri M. “The Golden Calf Story: Constructively and Deconstructively.†Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 33 (2008): 19-38. https://doi.org/10 .1177/0309089208094458.
Sommer, Benjamin D. The Bodies of God and the World of Ancient Israel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Spencer, John R. “Golden Calf.†Pages 1065-1069 in The Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 2. Edited by David N. Freedman, New York: Doubleday, 1992.
Suh, Myung S. The Tabernacle in the Narrative History of Israel from the Exodus to the Conquest. New York: Peter Lang, 2003.
Troalen, Lore G., Maria F. Guerre, Jim Tate & Bill Mangley. “Technological Study of Gold Jewellery Pieces Dating from the Middle Kingdom to the New Kingdom in Egypt.†ArcheoSciences 33 (2009): 111-119. https://doi.org/10.4000/archeo sciences.2095.
van Leeuwen, Raymond C. “A Technical Metallurgical Usage of יצ×.†Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 98 (1986): 112-113.
Wächter, Ludwig. “Afar.†Pages 257-265 in Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, vol. 11. Edited by G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren and Heinz-Joseph Fabry, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977.
Watts, James W. “Aaron and the Golden Calf in the Rhetoric of the Pentateuch.†Journal of Biblical Literature 130 (2011): 417-430.
Wessner, Mark D. “Toward a Literary Understanding of Moses and the Lord ‘Face to Face’ (×¤× ×™× ×ל ×¤× ×™×) in Exodus 33:7-11.†Restoration Quarterly 44 (2002): 109-116.
Whittaker, Helen. “Religious Symbolism and the Use of Gold in Burial Contexts in the Late Middle Helladic and Early Mycenaean Periods.†Studi Miceni ed Egeo-Anatolici 48 (2006): 283-289.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).